Hey everyone, hope you're having a wonderful Saturday! Here are this week's Top 5 ancient headlines:

• Study Uses Satellite Imagery to Identify Over 1,000 Andean Hillforts — Utilizing satellite imagery, researchers have identified over 1,000 hillforts, known as pukaras, in the Andean highlands, dating from the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE). These fortifications, built on natural barriers like hills and ridges, reflect a time of increased conflict, possibly due to social and environmental stressors. The comprehensive survey, covering nearly 100,000 square miles, reveals the pukaras' extensive distribution. It also challenges previous assumptions about their defensive purposes, thanks to their presence in high elevations and areas lacking defensible landforms. They may have had multiple purposes
• Obsidian Blade Linked to Coronado’s Expedition to Find the Fabled City of Gold — An obsidian blade found in the Texas panhandle is believed to be linked to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 16th-century expedition in search of the fabled city of gold, Cibola. Spectrometer analysis indicates the blade's origin from Central Mexico's Sierra de Pachuca. This, along with its form, suggests it could have been dropped by a member of Coronado's expedition, including indigenous Mexicans.
• Reconstructed Plants From Biblical Goliath Hometown Shed Light On Philistine Rituals — Excavations in Gath have provided insights into Philistine rituals through the study of ancient plants found in two temples. The use of Mediterranean plants links the Philistines with rituals related to Greek deities. There is also evidence of psychoactive plants being used.
• Traces of Bronze Age Copper Mine Found in Oman — Archaeologists discovered evidence of ancient copper mining in Oman's Qumayrah Valley, dating from 2600 to 2000 BCE. The site contained stone tools for crushing ore and fragments of furnace walls for smelting, indicating long-term copper processing. Additionally, remains of an Iron Age settlement from 1300 to 300 BCE, featuring houses along a narrow street, suggest a more complex community than expected in such a rural, mountainous area.
• A Physical Model to Quantify the Quality of Stones Selected as Tools by Stone Age Hunter–Gatherers — Researchers developed a model to quantify the force needed to make stone tools. Using the model, they analyzed tools from Diepkloof Rock Shelter and found that hunter-gatherers in southern Africa selected stones with the best properties for each given tool. They knew these properties and selected stones in this way at least 60,000 years ago.

Hope you enjoyed this abridged version of Ancient Beat. Have a great weekend!

Hey hey, happy Saturday! Here are this week's Top 5 ancient headlines:

• Study Uses Satellite Imagery to Identify Over 1,000 Andean Hillforts — Utilizing satellite imagery, researchers have identified over 1,000 hillforts, known as pukaras, in the Andean highlands, dating from the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE). These fortifications, built on natural barriers like hills and ridges, reflect a time of increased conflict, possibly due to social and environmental stressors. The comprehensive survey, covering nearly 100,000 square miles, reveals the pukaras' extensive distribution. It also challenges previous assumptions about their defensive purposes, thanks to their presence in high elevations and areas lacking defensible landforms. They may have had multiple purposes
• Obsidian Blade Linked to Coronado’s Expedition to Find the Fabled City of Gold — An obsidian blade found in the Texas panhandle is believed to be linked to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 16th-century expedition in search of the fabled city of gold, Cibola. Spectrometer analysis indicates the blade's origin from Central Mexico's Sierra de Pachuca. This, along with its form, suggests it could have been dropped by a member of Coronado's expedition, including indigenous Mexicans.
• Reconstructed Plants From Biblical Goliath Hometown Shed Light On Philistine Rituals — Excavations in Gath have provided insights into Philistine rituals through the study of ancient plants found in two temples. The use of Mediterranean plants links the Philistines with rituals related to Greek deities. There is also evidence of psychoactive plants being used.
• Traces of Bronze Age Copper Mine Found in Oman — Archaeologists discovered evidence of ancient copper mining in Oman's Qumayrah Valley, dating from 2600 to 2000 BCE. The site contained stone tools for crushing ore and fragments of furnace walls for smelting, indicating long-term copper processing. Additionally, remains of an Iron Age settlement from 1300 to 300 BCE, featuring houses along a narrow street, suggest a more complex community than expected in such a rural, mountainous area.
• A Physical Model to Quantify the Quality of Stones Selected as Tools by Stone Age Hunter–Gatherers — Researchers developed a model to quantify the force needed to make stone tools. Using the model, they analyzed tools from Diepkloof Rock Shelter and found that hunter-gatherers in southern Africa selected stones with the best properties for each given tool. They knew these properties and selected stones in this way at least 60,000 years ago.

Hope you enjoyed this abridged version of Ancient Beat. Have a great weekend!

Hope you're enjoying the weekend! Here are this week's Top 5 ancient headlines:

• Study Uses Satellite Imagery to Identify Over 1,000 Andean Hillforts — Utilizing satellite imagery, researchers have identified over 1,000 hillforts, known as pukaras, in the Andean highlands, dating from the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE). These fortifications, built on natural barriers like hills and ridges, reflect a time of increased conflict, possibly due to social and environmental stressors. The comprehensive survey, covering nearly 100,000 square miles, reveals the pukaras' extensive distribution. It also challenges previous assumptions about their defensive purposes, thanks to their presence in high elevations and areas lacking defensible landforms. They may have had multiple purposes
• Obsidian Blade Linked to Coronado’s Expedition to Find the Fabled City of Gold — An obsidian blade found in the Texas panhandle is believed to be linked to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 16th-century expedition in search of the fabled city of gold, Cibola. Spectrometer analysis indicates the blade's origin from Central Mexico's Sierra de Pachuca. This, along with its form, suggests it could have been dropped by a member of Coronado's expedition, including indigenous Mexicans.
• Reconstructed Plants From Biblical Goliath Hometown Shed Light On Philistine Rituals — Excavations in Gath have provided insights into Philistine rituals through the study of ancient plants found in two temples. The use of Mediterranean plants links the Philistines with rituals related to Greek deities. There is also evidence of psychoactive plants being used.
• Traces of Bronze Age Copper Mine Found in Oman — Archaeologists discovered evidence of ancient copper mining in Oman's Qumayrah Valley, dating from 2600 to 2000 BCE. The site contained stone tools for crushing ore and fragments of furnace walls for smelting, indicating long-term copper processing. Additionally, remains of an Iron Age settlement from 1300 to 300 BCE, featuring houses along a narrow street, suggest a more complex community than expected in such a rural, mountainous area.
• A Physical Model to Quantify the Quality of Stones Selected as Tools by Stone Age Hunter–Gatherers — Researchers developed a model to quantify the force needed to make stone tools. Using the model, they analyzed tools from Diepkloof Rock Shelter and found that hunter-gatherers in southern Africa selected stones with the best properties for each given tool. They knew these properties and selected stones in this way at least 60,000 years ago.

Hope you enjoyed this abridged version of Ancient Beat. Have a great weekend!

Hi folks! Here are this week's Top 5 ancient headlines:

• Study Uses Satellite Imagery to Identify Over 1,000 Andean Hillforts — Utilizing satellite imagery, researchers have identified over 1,000 hillforts, known as pukaras, in the Andean highlands, dating from the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE). These fortifications, built on natural barriers like hills and ridges, reflect a time of increased conflict, possibly due to social and environmental stressors. The comprehensive survey, covering nearly 100,000 square miles, reveals the pukaras' extensive distribution. It also challenges previous assumptions about their defensive purposes, thanks to their presence in high elevations and areas lacking defensible landforms. They may have had multiple purposes
• Obsidian Blade Linked to Coronado’s Expedition to Find the Fabled City of Gold — An obsidian blade found in the Texas panhandle is believed to be linked to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 16th-century expedition in search of the fabled city of gold, Cibola. Spectrometer analysis indicates the blade's origin from Central Mexico's Sierra de Pachuca. This, along with its form, suggests it could have been dropped by a member of Coronado's expedition, including indigenous Mexicans.
• Reconstructed Plants From Biblical Goliath Hometown Shed Light On Philistine Rituals — Excavations in Gath have provided insights into Philistine rituals through the study of ancient plants found in two temples. The use of Mediterranean plants links the Philistines with rituals related to Greek deities. There is also evidence of psychoactive plants being used.
• Traces of Bronze Age Copper Mine Found in Oman — Archaeologists discovered evidence of ancient copper mining in Oman's Qumayrah Valley, dating from 2600 to 2000 BCE. The site contained stone tools for crushing ore and fragments of furnace walls for smelting, indicating long-term copper processing. Additionally, remains of an Iron Age settlement from 1300 to 300 BCE, featuring houses along a narrow street, suggest a more complex community than expected in such a rural, mountainous area.
• A Physical Model to Quantify the Quality of Stones Selected as Tools by Stone Age Hunter–Gatherers — Researchers developed a model to quantify the force needed to make stone tools. Using the model, they analyzed tools from Diepkloof Rock Shelter and found that hunter-gatherers in southern Africa selected stones with the best properties for each given tool. They knew these properties and selected stones in this way at least 60,000 years ago.

Hope you enjoyed this abridged version of Ancient Beat. Have a great weekend!

Happy Saturday! Here are this week's Top 5 ancient headlines:

• Study Uses Satellite Imagery to Identify Over 1,000 Andean Hillforts — Utilizing satellite imagery, researchers have identified over 1,000 hillforts, known as pukaras, in the Andean highlands, dating from the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1450 CE). These fortifications, built on natural barriers like hills and ridges, reflect a time of increased conflict, possibly due to social and environmental stressors. The comprehensive survey, covering nearly 100,000 square miles, reveals the pukaras' extensive distribution. It also challenges previous assumptions about their defensive purposes, thanks to their presence in high elevations and areas lacking defensible landforms. They may have had multiple purposes
• Obsidian Blade Linked to Coronado’s Expedition to Find the Fabled City of Gold — An obsidian blade found in the Texas panhandle is believed to be linked to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's 16th-century expedition in search of the fabled city of gold, Cibola. Spectrometer analysis indicates the blade's origin from Central Mexico's Sierra de Pachuca. This, along with its form, suggests it could have been dropped by a member of Coronado's expedition, including indigenous Mexicans.
• Reconstructed Plants From Biblical Goliath Hometown Shed Light On Philistine Rituals — Excavations in Gath have provided insights into Philistine rituals through the study of ancient plants found in two temples. The use of Mediterranean plants links the Philistines with rituals related to Greek deities. There is also evidence of psychoactive plants being used.
• Traces of Bronze Age Copper Mine Found in Oman — Archaeologists discovered evidence of ancient copper mining in Oman's Qumayrah Valley, dating from 2600 to 2000 BCE. The site contained stone tools for crushing ore and fragments of furnace walls for smelting, indicating long-term copper processing. Additionally, remains of an Iron Age settlement from 1300 to 300 BCE, featuring houses along a narrow street, suggest a more complex community than expected in such a rural, mountainous area.
• A Physical Model to Quantify the Quality of Stones Selected as Tools by Stone Age Hunter–Gatherers — Researchers developed a model to quantify the force needed to make stone tools. Using the model, they analyzed tools from Diepkloof Rock Shelter and found that hunter-gatherers in southern Africa selected stones with the best properties for each given tool. They knew these properties and selected stones in this way at least 60,000 years ago.

Hope you enjoyed this abridged version of Ancient Beat. Have a great weekend!

$200 - From the Latin for “almost an island,” it’s a landform that’s surrounded by water on 3 sides.
$400 - This coordinate gives a location’s distance north or south of the equator.
$600 - Also known as a boreal forest, this biome contains many coniferous trees like pines, spruces, and larches.
$800 - It’s where 2 or more rivers merge to form one larger river.
$1,000 - Surrounded by South Africa, Lesotho is one of these, an area belonging to one country inside another.

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Happy Monday everyone! I know it has been a bit sporadic lately but I don't think I have anymore Monday morning plans or holidays coming up. Meet the Moors in Spain!

Region: Spain

An old map to show where the Moors once helped conquer in Spain
Stratus Index Ranking (Urgency): 124
Madrid
Climate: Peninsular Spain experiences three principal climatic types: semi-arid, maritime, and Mediterranean.
Teide, the highest mountain in Spain (Tenerife, Canary Islands)
Terrain: The majority of Spain's peninsular region consists of the Meseta Central, a highland plateau rimmed and dissected by mountain ranges. Other landforms include narrow coastal plains and some lowland river valleys, the most prominent of which is the Andalusian Plain in the southwest. The country can be divided into ten natural regions or subregions: the dominant Meseta Central, the Cantabrian Mountains (Cordillera Cantabrica) and the northwest region, the Ibérico region, the Pyrenees, the Penibético region in the southeast, the Andalusian Plain, the Ebro Basin, the coastal plains, the Balearic Islands, and the Canary Islands. These are commonly grouped into four types: the Meseta Central and associated mountains, other mountainous regions, lowland regions, and islands.
The Mediterranean coast of Spain
Wildlife of Spain: Spain has a diverse array of native animals, including a wide variety of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The country is home to some renowned species, such as the Spanish ‘Big Five’: Bearded Vulture, Spanish Imperial Eagle, Iberian Lynx, Iberian Wolf and Eurasian Brown Bear. More commonly encountered wildlife in Spain include Spanish Ibex, Cantabrian Chamois, Red and Roe Deer, and Red Squirrel. Spectacular birds seen in this region include Great Bustard, Griffon Vulture, White Stork, Montagu’s and Hen Harriers, Wallcreeper and White-winged Snowfinch.
An Iberian Wolf
Environmental Issues: Deforestation and wildfires, Air pollution – Acid rain, the destruction of the Ozone layer and the greenhouse effect are all consequences of the air pollution problem that Spain faces, Quality and quantity of water nationwide. Desertification as well as Saharan dust blowing off the west coast of Africa and over the Canary Islands (a Spanish archipelago).
Languages: Spain is a multilingual state. Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish Constitution as castellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931. Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages include Aragonese, Aranese, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic (Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese and Tamazight, to which the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up. The Moors may speak Arabic, particularly Hassaniyya Arabic.
Government Type: Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy

People: The Moors in Spain

A Moor man
Population: 11,000
Estimated Foreign Workers Needed: 1+
Beliefs: The Moors are 0% Christian, which means out of their population of 11,000, there are roughly 0 people who believe in Jesus. Thats very maybe one person for all the 11,000 unbelievers.
Moors are virtually all Sunni Muslim and part of the Malikite sect. They have adopted Arab culture and speak Hassaniyya Arabic. Pre-Islamic North Africans were a matriarchal people who had female rulers and traced their lineage through women. Moors, Tuareg and Saharawi tribes on the other hand were patriarchal before the Arab conquest. The Moors acknowledge two main Islamic brotherhoods: the Qadiri and the Tajani. The Qadiri is the most widespread group and is characterized by many secret societies that are saturated with mysticism.
History: The people known as Moors today are an offshoot of the Berber people, specifically a Hijazi Arab/Tuareg mixed tribe. When Arabs conquered North Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries, one of the first Berber people to convert where the Tuareg, who at that time dwelt on the African Red Sea coast. They helped the Arabs in their spread of Islam until they reached the Atlantic. From there the Moors and other Berber tribes conquered the Iberian Peninsula, Southern France and Italy and the island of Sicily. This kingdom was known as Al Andalusia or the Moroccan Empire. The Moors constructed cobblestone streets and multi-storied buildings. They built over 15 universities in Spain, Portugal and Morocco. The Moors, Arabs and Jews were expelled from Iberia in 1492 after King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella defeated the last of the Moorish strongholds. Today there are some Moors who have crossed the Mediterranean Sea in search of work.
Granada's Calderia Nueva resembles a North African souk
Culture: Typical qualification that all people groups can't be summed up in small paragraphs and this is an over generalization.
Though Muslims are often not welcome in that Iberian nation, Moors have the added problem of being associated with those who conquered Spain in the early 700s. For this reason, there are few Moors in Spain today. They often begin in places like Spain but try to move further north to countries like Germany with stronger economies and more jobs.

For hundreds of years, North African Muslims ruled southern Spain. Now some of their descendants are contributing to a "Moorish revival" that is regenerating parts of Andalucia, says the BBC's Sylvia Smith. The sound of sweet mint tea being poured into tiny glasses, the murmur of Arabic in the background, and piles of almond cornes de gazelle, served to customers sitting on low sofas, all suggest Morocco or Tunisia.
But step outside the shop and walk a few metres downhill and you are in Granada, Spain.
This teteria, or tea shop, is just one of dozens that festoon the historic area and have come to symbolise a significant change in the culture and economics of an important part of the city.
It was the opening of a tea shop alongside the city's first neighbourhood mosque that ignited the North African renaissance in Granada, according to Said Ekhlouf from Tetouan in northern Morocco.
The transformation is eye-catching. Dozens of brightly coloured, open-fronted stalls sell all kinds of Moroccan and Tunisian handicrafts, and the only music you will hear is Arabic, interspersed with the call to prayer.
Taking advantage of low property prices, the first arrivals in the 1980s colonised the Calderia Nueva and began, unwittingly, to introduce a modern version of Islamic Andalucian culture.
Abdul Hedi Benattia, who is a Tunisian historian as well as owning a restaurant and tea shop, claims that Islam as practised in Granada is very close to the original tolerant religion that spread across North Africa and through most of the Iberian peninsula from the 7th Century until the 14th Century.
An occasional imam in the neighbourhood mosque, Abdul Hedi meets many of the thousands of European Muslims who come on holiday to enjoy not only the Alhambra, one of Spain's most famous landmarks, but the large, new mosque built in 2002 with funding from the Emirate of Sharjah.
Overlooking the Alhambra - the palace complex built by the Muslim rulers of southern Spain in the 14th Century - this impressive mosque is at the heart of the 15,000-strong Muslim community which has made Granada its home.
Twenty years ago there were a mere 2,000 Muslims in the city - and most of them were Spanish converts.
Some of the more conservative native Spaniards demonstrate an uncompromising attitude to their neighbours.
"We defeated the Moors and sent them packing a long time ago," says Dolores Ramirez, an office cleaner.
"We don't mind them being here, so long as they behave themselves. But they are not in charge. This is a Spanish town."
Not that the North Africans seem to want to be in charge. They are content to see their businesses grow and to demonstrate that the Muslim population is a steadying and unifying force.

Taken from a BBC article.

Prayer Request:

• Pray for Moors to have their economic and spiritual needs met by God, their provider.
• Pray for Holy Spirit anointed workers to go to the Moors.
• Pray for a spiritual hunger among Moorish leaders that will lead them to open the doors of their understanding to Jesus Christ.
• Pray for an unstoppable movement to Christ in Libya, Mauritania and Spain.
• Ask the Lord to call people who are willing to go to Spain and Africa and share Christ with these peoples.
• Pray that the Holy Spirit will soften their hearts towards the Gospel.
• Ask God to call out prayer teams to break up the soil through worship and intercession.
• Ask the Lord to raise up a triumphant Church among the Moors for the glory of His name!
• Pray they would hunger to know God's love, found through faith in Christ's work and life.
• Pray against Putin and his insane little war.
• Pray for our nation (the United States), that we Christians can learn to come alongside our hurting brothers and sisters and learn to carry one another's burdens in a more Christlike manner than we have done historically.
• Pray that in this time of chaos and panic that the needs of the unreached are not forgotten by the church. Pray that our hearts continue to ache to see the unreached hear the Good News.

Brothers, my heart’s desire and prayer to God for them is that they may be saved. (Romans 10:1)
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Here are the previous weeks threads on the UPG of the Week for Reformed from 2022 (plus two from 2021 so this one post isn't so lonely). To save some space on these, all UPG posts made 2019-now are here, I will try to keep this current.

People Group	Country	Continent	Date Posted	Beliefs
Moor	Spain	Europe	09/12/2022	Islam
Bajau	Indonesia	Asia	08/29/2022	Islam
Sikh Jat	India	Asia	08/15/2022	Sikhism
Najdi Arabs	Saudi Arabia	Asia	08/08/2022	Islam
Burakumin	Japan	Asia	08/01/2022	Buddhism/Shintoism
Southern Shilha Berbers	Morocco	Africa	07/25/2022	Islam
Namassej	Bangladesh	Asia	07/18/2022	Hinduism
Banjar	Indonesia	Asia	07/11/2022	Islam
Hausa	Nigeria	Africa	06/27/2022	Islam
Nahara Makhuwa	Mozambique	Africa	06/20/2022	Islam
Somali	Ethiopia	Africa	06/13/2022	Islam
Kinja	Brazil	South America	06/06/2022	Animism
Nung	Vietnam	Asia	05/23/2022	Animism
Domari Romani	Egypt	Africa	05/16/2022	Islam
Butuo	China	Asia	05/09/2022	Animism
Rakhine	Myanmar	Asia	05/02/2022	Buddhism
Southern Uzbek	Afghanistan	Asia	04/25/2022	Islam
Mappila	India	Asia	04/18/2022	Islam
Zarma	Niger	Africa	04/11/2022	Islam
Shirazi	Tanzania	Africa	04/04/2022	Islam
Newah	Nepal	Asia	03/28/2022	Hinduism
Kabyle Berber	Algeria	Africa	03/21/2022	Islam
Huasa	Benin	Africa	03/14/2022	Islam
Macedonian Albanian	North Macedonia	Europe	03/07/2022	Islam
Chechen	Russia	Europe*	02/28/2022	Islam
Berber	France	Europe	02/14/2022	Islam
Tajik	Tajikistan	Asia	02/07/2022	Islam
Shengzha Nosu	China	Asia	01/31/2022	Animism
Yerwa Kanuri	Nigeria	Africa	01/24/2022	Islam
Somali	Somalia	Africa	01/10/2022	Islam
Tibetans	China*	Asia	01/03/2022	Buddhism
Magindanao	Philippines	Asia	12/27/2021	Islam
Gujarati	United Kingdom	Europe	12/13/2021	Hinduism

As always, if you have experience in this country or with this people group, feel free to comment or let me know and I will happily edit it so that we can better pray for these peoples! I shouldn't have to include this, but please don't come here to argue with people or to promote universalism. I am a moderator so we will see this if you do.
Here is a list of definitions in case you wonder what exactly I mean by words like "Unreached".
Here is a list of missions organizations that reach out to the world to do missions for the Glory of God.

Covers 7th Grade English language arts, Science, Math and Social Studies.
7th Grade Math / Quiz
7th Grade Math Review (82 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/7th-grade-math-review
Middle School Math Formulas (41 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/middle-school-math-formulas
Middle School Math Review (47 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/middle-school-math-review
Saxon Math 8/7 Review (234 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/saxon-math-8-7-review
Rational Numbers (8 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/rational-numbers
7th Grade Statistics (29 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/7th-grade-statistics
7th Grade Probability (46 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/7th-grade-probability
7th Grade Percents (27 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-math/quiz/7th-grade-percents
7th Grade Language Arts
7th Grade Vocabulary Practice (139 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/7th-grade-vocabulary-practice
7th Grade Grammar Exam (27 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/7th-grade-grammar-exam
7th Grade Nonfiction (24 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/7th-grade-nonfiction
7th Grade English Test (51 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/7th-grade-english-test
7th Grade English Test 2 (58 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/7th-grade-english-test-2
100 Words Middle Schoolers Should Should Know (93 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/100-words-middle-schoolers-should-should-know
Abeka 7th Grade Literature Final Exam (65 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-language-arts/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-literature-final-exam
7th Grade Social Studies
Time4learning Middle School Social Science: Civilizations of Islam (50 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/time4learning-middle-school-social-science-civilizations-of-islam
Time4learning Middle School Social Science: Grade 7 Industrial Revolution (95 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/time4learning-middle-school-social-science-grade-7-industrial-revolution
7th Grade Geography (81 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography
7th Grade Geography: Brazil (18 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-brazil
7th Grade Geography: China (19 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-china
7th Grade Geography: Russia (17 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-russia
7th Grade Geography: Landforms (31 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-landforms
7th Grade Geography: Water Features (31 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-water-features
7th Grade Geography: Microbiome (14 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-microbiome
7th Grade Economics Vocabulary (45 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-economics-vocabulary
7th Grade Economics Final Exam" (191 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-economics-final-exam
Cartography Questions (9 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/cartography-questions
7th Grade Complete Review (1480 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-complete-review
7th Grade Civics Exam Questions (167 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-civics-exam-questions
The Columbian Exchange (Crash course) (16 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/the-columbian-exchange-crash-course
15th Century Mariners (Crash Course) (28 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/15th-century-mariners-crash-course
The Roman Empire (Crash Course) (26 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/the-roman-empire-crash-course
Slavery (Crash Course) (41 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/slavery-crash-course
Mesopotamia (Crash Course) (13 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/mesopotamia-crash-course
Nonviolence and Peace Movements (Crash Course) (6 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/nonviolence-and-peace-movements-crash-course
7th Grade Government Test Review (36 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-government-test-review
Social Studies Survival Guide: Facts Every Student Should Know (100 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/social-studies-survival-guide-facts-every-student-should-know
7th Grade Geography: Environmental Issues (33 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/7th-grade-geography-environmental-issues
Social Studies: Central America (29 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/social-studies-central-america
Abeka Grade 7 History Test (57 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/abeka-grade-7-history-test
Abeka History of the World Final Exam (152 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/abeka-history-of-the-world-final-exam
Abeka 7th Grade History Test (last names only) (63 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-history-test-last-names-only
Abeka 7th Grade History Final (123 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-social-studies/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-history-final
7th Grade Science
7th Grade Biology Study Guide https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/chapte7th-grade-biology-study-guide
7th Grade Earth Science Notes https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/chapte7th-grade-earth-science-notes
Lab Safety (10 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/lab-safety
Time4Learning Middle School Science Grade 7 Nature of Science (42 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/time4learning-middle-school-science-grade-7-nature-of-science
7th Grade Science Vocabulary (80 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-science-vocabulary
7th Grade Physics Review (168 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-physics-review
7th Grade Basic Physics Terms (34 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-basic-physics-terms
7th Grade Chemistry Review (127 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-chemistry-review
7th Grade Basic Chemistry (40 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-basic-chemistry
7th Grade Basic Chemistry 2 (59 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-basic-chemistry-2
7th Grade Physics Vocabulary (104 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-physics-vocabulary
7th Grade Physics Review 2 (50 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-physics-review-2
7th Grade Physics Review 3 (67 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-physics-review-3
7th Grade Biology (174 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-biology
7th Grade Biology Questions (83 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-biology-questions
7th Grade Earth Science (39 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-earth-science
7th Grade Earth Science Final Exam (100 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-earth-science-final-exam
7th Grade Earth Science Questions (21 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-earth-science-questions
7th Grade Evolution (19 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-evolution
7th Grade Life Science: Classification (10 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-life-science-classification
7th Grade Scientific Method (14 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-scientific-method
7th Grade Life Science: Ecosystems (27 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-life-science-ecosystems
7th Grade Life Science: Virus (15 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-life-science-virus
7th Grade Intro to Genetics (16 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-intro-to-genetics
7th Grade Anatomy, Organ Systems (69 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-anatomy-organ-systems
7th Grade Digestive, Urinary, and Nervous Systems (23 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-digestive-urinary-and-nervous-systems
7th Grade Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems (17 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-integumentary-skeletal-and-muscular-systems
7th Grade Lymphatic/Immune, Circulatory, and Respiratory Systems (17 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-lymphatic-immune-circulatory-and-respiratory-systems
7th Grade Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration (15 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-photosynthesis-and-cellular-respiration
7th Grade STEM Review (99 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-stem-review
Core Concepts: Climates (14 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/core-concepts-climates
7th Grade Ecology (52 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-ecology
7th Grade Life Science Questions (99 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-life-science-questions
Carbon and Bonds (Crash Course) (12 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/carbon-and-bonds-crash-course
Chemistry (Crash Course) (165 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/chemistry-crash-course
Physics (Crash Course) (34 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/physics-crash-course
7th Grade Science Review Questions (698 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/7th-grade-science-review-questions
Abeka Science: Order and Design Test (164 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/abeka-science-order-and-design-test
Abeka 7th Grade Science (Order and Design) Final Exam (53 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-science-order-and-design-final-exam
Abeka 7th Grade Science Birds Review (49 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-science-birds-review
Abeka 7th Grade Science Final Test (142 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/7th-grade-science/quiz/abeka-7th-grade-science-final-test
6th Grade Language Arts / Quiz
6th Grade English Grammar Review https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/chapte6th-grade-english-grammar-review
6th Grade Synonyms Practice (177 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/6th-grade-synonyms-practice
6th Grade Vocabulary - Antonyms (13 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/6th-grade-vocabulary-antonyms
6th Grade Latin Vocabulary (98 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/6th-grade-latin-vocabulary
6th Grade English Exam Review (119 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/6th-grade-english-exam-review
6th Grade Literature Review (50 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/6th-grade-literature-review
Words 6th Graders Should Know (71 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-language-arts/quiz/words-6th-graders-should-know
6th Grade Common Core Vocabulary (62 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-vocabulary/quiz/sixth-grade-common-core-vocabulary
6th Grade Social Studies
6th Grade, Greek Gods and Goddesses https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/chapte6th-grade-greek-gods-and-goddesses
6th Grade Social Studies Ancient Greece https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/chapte6th-grade-social-studies-ancient-greece
U.S. State Capitals Test (50 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/us-state-capitals-test
Time4learning Middle School Social Science: Roman Legacy (27 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/time4learning-middle-school-social-science-roman-legacy
World Studies Ancient Greece and Rome (26 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/world-studies-ancient-greece-and-rome
World Studies Iraq and Arabia (40 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/world-studies-iraq-and-arabia
World Studies Central/South Asia (42 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/world-studies-central-south-asia
World Studies Africa (31 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/world-studies-africa
Medieval Times Study Guide (33 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/medieval-times-study-guide
Mesoamerica Study Guide (64 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/mesoamerica-study-guide
Ancient Greece Study Guide (38 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/ancient-greece-study-guide
Pharaohs Study Guide (29 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/pharaohs-study-guide
Daily Life Of Egyptians Study Guide (16 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/daily-life-of-egyptians-study-guide
Mesopotamia (35 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/mesopotamia
6th Grade Social Studies Vocabulary (128 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-vocabulary
6th Grade Social Studies Review (76 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-review
6th Grade Social Studies Final Exam (60 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-final-exam
6th Grade Ancient Rome (25 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-ancient-rome
6th Grade Ancient China (20 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-ancient-china
6th Grade Ancient Mesopotamia (22 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-ancient-mesopotamia
6th Grade Geography Skills (23 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-geography-skills
The Aztec Civilization (23 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/the-aztec-civilization
Ancient Maya (18 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/ancient-maya
6th Grade Social Studies - Canada (17 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-canada
6th Social Studies Economics (26 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-social-studies-economics
6th Grade Social Studies TCAP Review (165 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-tcap-review
6th Grade Social Studies Australia (29 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-australia
6th Grade Buddhism (6 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-buddhism
6th Grade Silk Road (23 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-silk-road
6th Grade Culture (11 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-culture
6th Grade Social Studies Core Concepts Vocabulary (23 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-social-studies-core-concepts-vocabulary
6th Grade Government (38 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-government
6th Grade World History Questions (111 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-world-history-questions
Physical Geography Review (40 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/physical-geography-review
6th Grade History: The Stone Ages and Early Cultures (32 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-history-the-stone-ages-and-early-cultures
6th Grade History: Mesopotamia and Fertile Crescent (22 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-history-mesopotamia-and-fertile-crescent
6th Grade Geography: Canada (45 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/6th-grade-geography-canada
Cartography Vocabulary (30 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/cartography-vocabulary
Bronze Age (Crash Course) (8 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/bronze-age-crash-course
Ancient Egypt (Crash Course) (17 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/ancient-egypt-crash-course
Puritans (Crash Course) (75 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/puritans-crash-course
Pilgrims (Crash Course) (20 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/pilgrims-crash-course
Pilgrims 2 (Crash Course) (44 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/pilgrims-2-crash-course
Alexander the Great (19 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/alexander-the-great
Abeka Grade 6 New World History Test (43 Item/s) https://www.fatskills.com/6th-grade-social-studies/quiz/abeka-grade-6-new-world-history-test

Non-professional here. I picked up “The Field Guide to Geology” by David Lambert and the Diagram Group, and later “The Origin of Landscapes” by Garner and “Landforms in Africa” in a free book pile at a library. I really love the diagrams and figures in these books and can spend a lot of time just studying them and trying to understand the processes illustrated.
I’m wondering if anyone has any recommendations for other resources that have such illustrations that are worth picking up?

If you think about the definition, Technically Africa is just two big peninsulas. the definition of peninsula is a landform that is surrounded by water, and connected to a main land which it extends off of. by that definition, technically Africa is a peninsula. Right?

Living in a big city is always enjoyable as people get a lot of facilities and services, especially when compared to the countryside. Thousands of people commute daily to find employment in the cities. Cities offer modern infrastructure on top of services like employment, medical facilities, better education, better transport, entertainment, sports clubs, quality food as well as safe and clean drinking water.
Many people from rural backgrounds dream to move from their villages to cities. No doubt, one would cherish to live in a big city.
But despite having all these facilities, metropolitan cities, especially those in developing countries, have made the lives of urban communities a nightmare. Instead of facilitating the lives of people, now metropolitan cities and megacities have proved to be a hub of diseases and problems. Many problems that exist in cities are the result of poor planning and ineffective urban management. That’s why these problems can be called planning or more specifically, urban planning problems. Cities are facing many planning-related challenges, which can be solved through flexible and problem-solving planning techniques.
The biggest challenge that cities now face is urbanisation. Before 1850, no city could be described as fundamentally urban but now, all industrial and less developed countries are urban. As time goes by, the cities are becoming increasingly urban as people living in the less developed societies move towards the urban living patterns, common in many advanced countries for some time. Today, 54 per cent of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 66 per cent by 2050. Projections show that urbanisation, combined with the overall growth of the world’s population, could add another 2.5 billion people to urban populations by 2050, with close to 90 per cent of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa (UN DESA’s population division).
It is recognised that over 71 per cent of the city’s growth takes place outside of the formal planning practices. In developing countries, over 30 per cent of the population is living in slums or Katchi Abadis, where public land (sometimes, private vacant land) is illegally occupied. In African countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, almost 89 per cent of new urban settlements are taking the form of urban slums as the population growth rate is the highest in the world in this part of the globe. These slums don’t have open and green spaces with no or very poor water, sanitation, drainage, sewerage, gas and electricity facilities; making them most vulnerable to climate changes or any crucial disastrous situation. This issue of unplanned urbanisation is also a major concern in the developed world. Urban areas generate almost 81 per cent of the greenhouse gas emissions worldwide; making urban policies fail.
The total population of Pakistan, including Gilgit-Baltistan, is 21,27,42,631 (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2017). According to the 1998 census, the population of Pakistan was 132,352,279 and the difference in population from 1998 to 2017 is 80,39,03,52; almost 61 per cent of 1998’s population. An increase in population has resulted in more urbanisation in the cities. Now, Pakistan has two megacities, Lahore and Karachi, with a population of more than 10 million.
Lahore offers numerous opportunities yet also hosts a lot of urban planning problems. With a population of 51,43,495 in 1998, the city now hosts more than 11.3 million people. Though urbanisation is not a problem, rapid urbanisation, which is usually not manageable, is a big problem.
Rapid urbanisation has resulted in haphazard development in the urban areas and on the periphery of the city, which has changed its landform. The uncontrolled urbanisation results in many problems in urban areas. It is challenging the urban managers and town planners to manage the urban population and decentralise the urban activities to make the urban centres free from over-congestion and encroachments, traffic jams and pollution. Haphazard development has resulted in urban sprawls, Katchi Abadis, slum and squatters in the Lahore City, which is a challenging job for the urban managers. This is largely because of less affordable housing provision by the government and law enforcement authorities like Lahore development authority (LDA).
Air pollution is damaging the lives and health of urban populations over the world and has turned out to be a serious urban planning problem due to the extinction of green belts. Air pollution accounts for over three million deaths around the globe. Lahore was once known as the city of gardens but now it is one of the most polluted cities in the world. The safe level set by the WHO for air pollution is 10 µg/m3 of PM 2.5 particles. Lahore has an annual average of 68 µg/m3. That is 6.8 times the WHO’s safe level.
Meanwhile, Pakistan is ranked fourth among the most populated countries in the world (WHO). In Pakistan, there are nearly 59,241 deaths every year due to air pollution, out of which 13,683 are children (Breath Life campaign).
The availability of safe drinking water is an increasingly major concern for the interventional community, especially in the light of changing climate and depleting biodiversity. Access to safe drinking water for domestic use has become a major challenge for contemporary societies. Demand for clean and safe water has become more acute in the context of the growing global population, particularly in less developed countries. Hence, urbanisation has been phenomenal and puzzling with a rapid shift from 15 per cent in 1950 to about 41 per cent in 2007. It is estimated that by 2030, the continent may attain 54 per cent urban population.
It is estimated that close to 300 million people do not have access to drinking water. Research showed that water used in most households in developing countries is unsafe for consumption. It is also evident that every year, contaminated drinking water contributes to millions of deaths of the poorest people of the world from preventable diseases. In Pakistan, 44 per cent population doesn’t have access to clean drinking water and by 2020, Karachi would face a 600 MGD shortfall (Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources PCRWR).
Traffic load has now made the situation worse for the people to move freely in the urban centres; affecting the LOS (level of service) and road infrastructure. Traffic jams in the urban areas are causing serious health issues, including headaches, depression and mental disorders. Time delays, non-serious behaviour of public towards traffic rules, hurry to reach the destination and poor implementation of traffic rules by law enforcing agencies have all worsened the situation.
We don’t have a housing problem; we have a land speculation problem. Land speculation is a worldwide phenomenon and many developed countries have been suffering from this tumour for many years. Right now, Lahore is the hub of real estate in Pakistan. This phenomenon has led to serious affordable housing problems for the urban poor. There is already a backlog of more than eight million housing units, which is growing approximately by about 300,000 units every year. The international standard of per room density is 1.1 persons while in Pakistan, it is 3.5 persons. The provision of housing has remained a core task for the planning agencies in Lahore. Lahore Development Authority (LDA) has developed a lot of schemes in the Lahore city for the welfare of the inhabitants while Punjab Housing and Town Planning Agency (PHATA) has also developed similar schemes in the Lahore city. Whereby, the city has also sprawled because of the economic forces.
The governmental and planning authorities should define the boundaries of Lahore.
It should develop satellite towns around Lahore, with all facilities to guide the plan development and sustainable growth like in London. Development control is the fundamental part of the city and, on a bigger scale, the country’s sustainable development. To make the Lahore city ideal, law enforcement agencies should ensure proper development control. Legislations have to be made by upper planning tier, including senators and politicians, along with city planners, environmentalists and other related professionals related to development control because development control helps make cities ideal; stops social change (stops migration when all facilities are present in local areas); stops diseases (through planned and sustainable development) and protects the environment. The government should encourage investment in undeveloped and underdeveloped areas, through public-private partnerships, by giving them tax relief. Water is a major concern throughout the world. The extraction of unplanned urbanisation should be banned, and the government should monitor the extraction of water and ensure the clean water supply in all areas. In the master plan, the LDA should identify areas for future growth where walkable housing schemes can be established. All areas should be linked with efficient integrated public transport. As all these problems are not linked with Lahore or Pakistan only but also identified and recognised at the international level, Pakistan should collaborate with all delegations and protocols made at the international level. It should learn from the experiences of developed countries, which overcame such planning problems.
Afshan Arshad NOVEMBER 4, 2019
Source
The writer is a final year student of City and Regional Planning Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

The Rift 6/9
The Rift is a hold easy to remember, it’s the one with Rift-town as it’s capital. But a geological rift is a very specific type of place that sets hard rules for the geology there. So is The Rift, actually a rift valley? Probably not. The devs might have just liked the sound of it and not known that calling it a rift had strong implications. In the real world, rift valleys such as the East African Rift in Africa, the Baikal Rift zone in Asia, and the Basin and Range in North America are all vast, with very specific topography that isn’t in the hold of Riften. If there is any rift geology going on in the Rift, it’s deep, super old, and covered up by everything else. It’s best to say it’s just a name and move on.
The actual topography of The Rift is relatively flat, temperate, molded by old glaciers, and to a greater extent, newer rivers. This is best explained by an old canyon valley that got blocked off and infilled by Eastmarch Vvardenfell and a few early lava flows. The original valley floor would have been uplifted continental crust, a variety of mostly sedimentary layers, all of which should be on display in the cliffs around Mistwatch. When Vvardenfell was forming it’s peak mass here, it’s lava and lahar flows would have flowed to the path of least resistance, which would have been any river cut or wash, including those south, to this place, until the land here was made effectively level, and from then on the path of least resistance would usually be north towards the sea. While Vvardenfell was present this land would have backed up with water, ice, ash and any suitable flora. Once Vvardenfell packed up and moved, the water impounded in The Rift would have drained possibly cataclysmically, but over a short time regardless. This probably wouldn’t need to be modded, but there is some opportunity here to put in an ancient shoreline if that suits a moder or dev.
The modern Rift, is a basin that holds Lake Geir, Lake Honrich, and a large aspen forest. Although I don't intend to venture into botany often, an aspen forrest is an important thing to note. Aspen forests are beautiful, common at this elevation, and play interesting tricks with the wind that a modder may wish to exploit. When the wind blows the small aspen leaves flip about their stems causing the forrest to visibly shimmer green. The sound of this wind in the leaves is quite distinct. It’s usually referred to as “quaking” hence why the most common aspen species is named "quaking aspen.” Aspens usually reproduce through self cloning, rather than sexual seed spreading. They do both, but the roots of aspens will produce a shoot that will grow into a new tree. An aspen forrest can actually be just one plant, with all the trees actually connected underground. Likewise, there can be hundreds of individuals all covering the same area, with their roots passing others. Aspen forests are very good at preventing erosion. They hold topsoil tightly, redirect surface water, and delay the flow of ground water. It’s entirely possible that the same aspen individuals that are present now, may have been here since Vvardenfell or even before.
Central Rift Topography
Alright, so let’s get a problem out in the open right away. Lake Geir watersheds thrice and twice is already a mistake. This needs to get fixed and there is no easy way to do it, but some are a lot harder than others. The big problem is that the two outlets astride of Nilheim make up waterfalls too iconic and beautiful to let go. One could move them east, so they pass over Clearspring Tarn and get their water from Northwind Summit runoff rather than Lake Honrich/Lake Geir. But I think a better solution is to move Lake Geir east, and let those two falls keep their placement and headwaters. Instead, the stream flowing through Iverstead should be isolated, there should be creeks coming out of the Throat/Jerall canyon and Froki’s shack areas anyway, so take those headwaters and make them the Iverstead river. Then take Geirmand's Hall and make it a solid land mass instead of an island. That should fix Iverstead as long as the creek swings out to pick up the Ivestead bridge and Narfi’s sister. Meanwhile the two waterfalls astride Nilheim can be forced to work if they are on the same flat strata layer, say of a Vvardenfell lava, which can be hard, solid, and would have been laid down flat, relatively recently by geological standards. That should fix everything.
With that unfortunate mishap out of the way let's refocus. We just mentioned Northwind summit, which should have some water runoff flowing someplace, and in fact, Clearspring Tarn and Autumnshade Clearing are lovely places. No need to choose, there should be runoff going both ways. The big question is should it be surface water, or aquifer water. Aquifer groundwater flows are going to come up a lot more often from here on out, so lets go over them. If you pour sand on concrete, then pour water over the sand, the water will go through the permeable sand, to the impermeable concrete, and flow from there. When you have groundwater then new hard-stuff/soft-stuff rules kick in accordingly. The water will flow down the side of a mountain, till it gets absorbed, or not. If it never hits soft stuff, it will stay on the surface. If it hits absorbent soft stuff, then some or all of it will go into the soft stuff layer, and saturate it. If the saturated layer is exposed elsewhere at a lower elevation a spring may appear such as the Snake River Aquifer Spring. The devs overused such springs in the vanilla game. Sometimes they work, sometimes they are a mistake, but generally, there are too many of them. From Northwind peak to Autumnshade Clearing, the aquifer groundwater idea can work. There are a few surface pools around Boulderfall cave that work as all being part of the same saturated soil, just as long as they aren’t damed off by an impermeable hard layer. But the water of Clearspring Tarn should be connected with better defined surface creeks. The Clearspring cave at Clearspring Tarn is a convincing place to run an aquifer that has hollowed out a permeable strata layer. It would be a positive touch for watershed creek trails to lead to Clearpring Tarn, into the pool to then drain into Clearspring Cave. And then next modify the cave entrance to include an outflow creek. This way the collection and flow of water is continuous. As is, the rationalization has to be that water from Clearpring goes to aquifer, but that is implausible because the aquifer would drain downhill, and we are already at a steep clifflike region, so the aquifer would reemerge to the surface somewhere nearby regardless.
Now mounted, since it takes no small amount of horse abuse to get here, we sit at the proper peak of Northwind summit so that we are facing west, with the Clearspring Tarn map-marker below and ahead of us, and a whole lot of gravity before Eastmarch on our right. The ground beneath us could be an andecite lava flow, which may be capping strata that predates Vvarenfell. Andecite, named because it's common in the real world Andes mountain range, is a different mineral than basalt. It’s chemistry leads it to be more viscous, so it tends to make taller ridges that stay closer to the source. Andesite tends to flow towards the end of a volcano’s life. All these things together make an andecite cap a good match for Shearpoint and Northwind.
To our left we see aspen forest, and slopes. The aspens hold soil well, meaning that the tier-like terrain doodad usage all around works well. Ground held by aspen roots will erode slower than that which is not. The slopes we see tell us that the path of erosion is toward Shore's Stone on our left. To our right most watershed would drain diffusely and rapidly enough to not make a surface creek on its way to Eastmarch, but would still make cobbles and pebbles of the scree in every wash, but those would be modest. Before us, Northwind seems to shape into an arete ridge, and beyond that, the aquifers and creeks we just described should start to form.
Forelhost
Forelhost is a very important archeological dungeon, because through the journals of Skorm Snow-Strider, it sets hard lore dates for the end of the dragon cults, and the relationships between Dwemer and Nords. The lore seems to indicate that Nords transferred from a dragon cult society, to a dragon free society, then drove out the Falmer, who were later subjugated and abused by the Dwemer, who then later still, disappeared at all at once. That’s the official story, but we do not corroborate it with the available evidence. We see few Falmer ruins, and we see dragon priest ruins in the direct vicinity of Dwemer ruins such as at Rkund, so they probably weren't co-existing at the same time. It’s evident that Nords were using Falmer ruins as building material, whether the Aedra/devs intended that or not. Modern Solitude, and Whiterun are likely to be built of the ruins of Falmer cities and on their foundations. So when Skorm writes of hunting “snow elves”, he’s either not making a distinction between Falmer and Dwemer, or his enlightened society is more dragon priest Nord like than modern Nord like. Probably both. At any rate, it's clear that the Nords of the time were militarized and actively hunting dragon priest holdouts, and probably any elf.
Forelhost the mountain is a foothill of the Jeralls. Basically, its a scaled up version of the soft-stuff/hard-stuff erosion rules. The peak is several tilted strata that are generally hard on average, and the gap between Lost Tongue and Forelhost is made of several softer layers on average. That gap-valley, from Dayspring Canyon to Crystaldrift Cave, is still elevated well above the Rift basin floor enough to be considered a mountain itself, and that whole area is probably the land occupied by last community of mainland dragon priest Nords, with the gap-valley providing crop-land and Forelhost dungeon itself probably serving as mostly a keep, just in case a Skorm comes. The cliffs that make up the change in elevation from the Rift valley to the gap-valley are called an escarpment. This escarpment contains Crystaldrift Cave and Nightingale Hall, and as such the strata layers of the escarpment exterior will also be the same textures of the cave wall interiors of both cases.
Nightingale hall, features wonderful waterworks, and since we are being immersive with those now, we know that some strata layer of Nightingale must be permeable, and so should be the soft rock of the dragon mound area on top of the escarpment. Runoff from the Jeralls and Forelhost pool nearby, and the permeable soil around the pool saturates an aquifer, which concentrates the flow through Nightingale Hall, which then must flow past Snow-Shod farm to get to Lake Honrich. I would texture that last section as a surface ditch. The farm would be specifically there because of the creek outflow, which would be an irrigation source. So the creek would be in the form of a man manipulated ditch, possibly with gates and weirs. The scarp contains several iron ore veins, so a good strata texture should include the banded iron formation.
The Eastern Creek Basin
I’ve been referring to Dayspring Canyon and when I do, I’m talking specifically about the literal canyon separating the Velothi from the Jeralls. Dayspring Canyon the map marker and load-door separated map area must be, if rationalized, a trail up a wash on the Velothi side. That part of the Dawnguard expansion features, aside from a fortress far too nice to ever be forgotten about, (they should have just had an extremist sect coop an existing Stendar holding since they already had militarized Aedra worshipers) the load door gated area also has a river, that headwaters from no where, and watersheds to nowhere. This, we must fix. The headwaters should be snowmelt, a modest glacier is enough, in a wash beneath a saddle) between impassible Velothi peaks. The watershed should be directly through the load door, as such, the rise in terrain should not be there, it should more closely resemble the wash of Bloated Man's Grotto in Bleakfalls mountain, which also has inconsistencies of hydrology on the other side of the load door (a common problem all around) but has a clearer and more immersive wash leading to the load door. It should be clear that the water is smoothly running, and downhill, on the surface. We shouldn’t use short aquifers for heavy flowing water.
On the main map, facing the Dayspring Canyon load door, which should be puking out a large wet creek, we are on a slope. It’s uphill here to our left into Skyrim, and uphill to our rear Forelhost Peak. Downhill through the proper canyon is where this creek that 100% should be here, should shed, into Morrowind.
We ride uphill now, and its not long before we run into another hydrology mistake. Whenever we see water, we should be suspicious, and here on a bridge before the trail to Black-Brier Lodge we see a waterfall coming from nowhere, making a creek, and ending at nowhere. The headwaters are actually fine. Waterfalls coming straight out of cliff faces are actually common in the real world. It’s an aquifer, a permeable strata layer is slanted through the mountain, it’s lowest point is where the waterfall comes out, and all the rest of it’s surface area is collecting the water. So here we have a hard rule. Cliff waterfalls mean the lowest point of a permeable strata layer. The short creeks watershed however, does not work. Standing on the bridge, facing northeast, we see the creek before us, and a large mountain ridge beyond it. If we go around that Black-Brier ridge, to the basin just before the charming vanilla Lost Prospect Mine (which is yet another load door that should be puking out a creek BTW), we see a mystery creek of about the same volume appear from nowhere. We might be tempted to put a permeable layer through Black-Brier ridge and justify it as an aquifer, but that actually doesn’t work. It could, for maybe 20-100 years, but there clearly has been a creek in this valley for a lot longer than that. If such a volume of water were pushing through such a short aquifer, it would eat a hole straight through. Fixing it is easier than most hydrology mistakes, just rout the creek around the ridge which is what I recommend, or punch the aforementioned hole through the ridge, which actually has real world precedent where the Andes meet the Amazon.
Back to the Lost Prospect Mine Basin. Which is the perfect place for a beaver dam should anyone be tempted to mod one, this creek too, is too short, and should continue, on the surface, literally all the way down to Eastmarch. It can’t go back underground, because it’s going to be collecting all the runoff from the Velothi. the permeable strata layers here are already saturated, so there is no space to aquifer into. If this landscape was real, it would be a lake, not an aspen forest with a creek in it. I would recommend we punch a canyon through the rise that leads to Fallowstone Cave to make it work. Fallowstone however, can be a working alternative. You could run the creek through it instead of cutting a canyon in the rise. Fallowstone is downhill, with a lot of waterworks, you could run the creek into the cave entrance, and watershed on a cliff on the other side of the ridge. Both ideas fix the basic problem, but running the creek through Fallowstone may solve more because you still need to account for it’s water anyway, and you get to pick where the water reemerges from the Velothi. On the other hand the continuous surface creek should be more aesthetic, and you could use any Velothi runoff to explain the Fallowstone water.
As the creek that should be there descends, it has a series of dots to connect. Greenwall Cave and the pool before it, Tovalds Cave and the pool before it, and Stony Creek Cave, which is a good model for how many cave entrances should be, and the pool before it. Don’t be afraid to put the creek directly trailside, this is very normal in the real world, and don’t be afraid to pave the trail with creek cobbles, which, being Velothi igneous stuff, are probably black basalt. You don’t really need a trail and a stony creek together. Just the cobbled creek is enough for me in the real world. And remember to throw in a few mudslide alluvial fans off the Velothi. The creek should terminate in Eastmarch at the base of the modest peak bearing a shrine of Akatosh.
The Lakes Honrich and Geir
Did you know it’s faster to walk to Riften from the north coast of Lake Honrich rather than the road on the south? It’s even trailed, except at one spot between Faldar’s Tooth and Merryfair Farm. That spot, is actually a good place to put in some coastal erosion morphology. Perhaps even a collapsed bridge of some kind. Or you could just bridge it with a working bridge if that suits you. That aside, Lake Honrich is separated by two ridges, one guarded by Faldar’s Tooth and the other by Treva’s Watch. Each ridge is a place of modder freedom, you could cap them with a Vvardenfell lava flow, but you don’t have to if you prefer more sedimentary strata. The former may be more immersive, but even then, the lava further from the source is going to be thinnest.
The northern coast is aspen forest that should watershed groundwater with a high water table, meaning no surface water should be there. At two other points however, there should be complete creeks flowing. One from the Jeralls, between Largashbur and Darklight tower, should probably emerge from the wash we previously mentioned should have a large scree pile above Darklight in our Jerall section. The headwaters should be basically trickling from the scree, and collecting with sewage from Darklight and Largashbur. The basin here is, again too low. If real there would be a pool here, not a basin, or rather Honrich would just invade here. That’s a mistake that can be fixed in two ways. Either raise it and go ahead and put in a creek, or flood it, which is totally an option, but kills an encounter spawn location if you do.
The other problem creek is the Sarethi Farm irrigation. Once again, water coming from and going to nowhere. The ridge above it from Treva’s watch to the Rift Watchtower needs to have a permeable strata layer slanted so the Sarethi Farm is at it’s lowest point, or, one would need to make trickle textures from scratch, and place some surface dendritic channels that add up to that flow. That latter option is probably a good idea, such textures will be useful in lands we’ve already covered and will be again such as Darklight scree, but it is labor intensive. The Serethi watershed should absolutely be on the surface, but may be able to help with that original big hydrology problem of the Rift, the way Lake Geir watersheds thrice. Again, the Iverstead river should be fully separated from the lakes in my opinion, and get it’s water from the Throat and Jeralls directly. But the Serethi creek is close enough to Nielheim that it could provide the easternmost cascade, and the lakes could all watershed on the western cascade. That’s not necessary if you do the flat hard strata I mentioned above, but is an option if you don’t want one flat hard strata. Otherwise dump the Serethi Creek upstream and it's all fixed.
Recapping the new Rift Rules and Mistakes
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• The Rift probably isn’t a real rift
• Lake Geir cannot be left as is, and creeks that should exist anyway can help fix it
• Aquifer rules apply now. Water will saturate soft permeable strata, and exit at that strata’s lowest point. Thus soft stuff/hard stuff rules now apply to hydrology as well as ridge placement
• Many cave-dungeons should be better integrated as part of aquifer systems
• There are many places creeks should be (be careful not to make the flows they contain too large)
• Forensics at Forelhost and everywhere else tell us that Dragon Priest Nord society persisted past the point Falmer were subjugated by Dwemer. The lore implies otherwise, but is probably “rewritten" history. Nords probably made no distinction between Falmer and Dwemer
• Cliff waterfalls must always emerge from the lowest point of a saturated strata layer aquifer
• Dendritic flow (braided stream) trickle textures would be a great addition to the modding toolset
• Roadside/trailside creeks should be more frequent when called for
• Where there’s water, there’s a high chance of a dev mistake