Schwa sounds

Hiligaynon - Central Visayan branch

Kinaray-a - Western Visayan branch

I tried to make it as phonetic as possible, but it's still french, so i couldn't make it perfect. Consonants with a macron are either doubled or have a schwa after them. I used X to mark plural and to mark group of vowels that aren't diphthongs ( since there are many in Québec French ). The sounds marked as red in the key are only found in loanwords/words of Greek origin.

https://preview.redd.it/r4pptt3034zc1.jpg?width=1280&format=pjpg&auto=webp&s=4f2a2d932bd6eab8ebb56673a074c1f94da677d6
The study of the history of Malay language is incomplete without a focus on the Low Malay which rose to prominence in the 16th to 17th centuries and largely instrumental in the development of the Indonesian language,⁽¹⁾ an important modern Malay variant.
There have been different ways of classifying the variants of Malay in the course of time. William Marsden distinguished four "styles" of Malay. The 𝑏𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑚 ("courtly style") and the 𝑏𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛 ("style of the politer classes"), only differ from each other in the presence in the former of a small number of words with with status features pertaining to the king. The third style is the 𝑏𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑔 ("language of commerce"), used by the insular traders and characterized by its being "less elegant and less grammatical" than the former styles. The last style is the 𝑏𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑘𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑘𝑎𝑛, the "mixed jargon of the bazaars of great sea-port towns, a sort of language of convention, of which Malayan is the basis".⁽²⁾
The more usual division however, was binary, of which High and Low Malay are the most familiar. High Malay was the literary language, that was developed in courts of Melaka and Johor Sultanates. While Low Malay, also known as 𝑏𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑟 ("Bazaar Malay") was developed as a trading language from the extensive untutored acquisition of Malay by multi-ethnic populations in Southeast Asia. They are characterised by a reduced morphology, (usually) a simplified phonology and the usage of very few prepositions. Where literary Malay uses verbal morphology (prefixes and suffixes), Low Malay makes frequent use of auxiliaries.⁽³⁾ Another important feature of Low Malay which can still be found in modern Indonesian is the pronunciation of the final 'a' strictly as /a/ as per Latin sound, signifying a strong foreign influence, which differs from the Standard Malay used in Malaysia and Brunei that still retains the traditional Melaka-Johor schwa sound /ə/ for final 'a'.⁽⁴⁾⁽⁵⁾
According to Adelaar, in addition to a High literary variant and a Low variant for trade and other forms of inter-ethnic communication, there must also have been a third category known as the vernaculars. These vernaculars were different from the Low Malay variants in that they were the dialects of traditional Malay communities and did not show the same amount of interference from other languages as did low Malay. Among notable vernaculars include the Pattani Malay, Kedahan Malay, Kelantanese Malay, Bruneian Malay and many other traditional Malay dialects.⁽³⁾
Through inter-ethnic contact within the traditional Malay homeland, the resulting development of a pidginised variety, known as Bazaar Malay or Low Malay can be observed with Malay-based creole languages like Baba Malay and Chetty Malay of Melaka. Beyond the traditional Malay homeland, instances of such development occurred particularly in port cities across the Eastern Malay archipelago, and is largely attributed to the increase in the presence of Malay traders in the region from the 16th century. As noted by João de Barros in the same period, this large exodus of Malay traders to other ports in the region and their eventual domination in shipping and trade, was the direct result of the fall of Melaka Sultanate to the hand of the Portuguese in 1511.⁽⁶⁾ As Portuguese control around the Straits of Malacca was firmly established, the centre of activity of these Malay traders was effectively shifted to the Eastern Malay Archipelago.
In 1544 the Portuguese Antonio Paiva noted the bustling atmosphere at Siang Kingdom, South Sulawesi, where the bulk of the merchants were Malays from Ujung Tanah (Johor), Patani, and Pahang.⁽⁷⁾ But the Christianisation of the ruler of Siang by the Portuguese at that time may have spurred the Muslim Malay merchants to shift their trade to the new thriving port at Makassar, which was under the control of a newly-formed union of the Makassarese kingdoms of Gowa and Tallo. The first official settlement of the Malays in Makassar had been established in 1561, when the Malay skipper Anakoda Bonang (Datuk Maharaja Bonang) brought gifts of textiles and weapons to the ruler of Goa, Karaeng Tunipalangga. The Malays' position was further consolidated with the arrival in 1632 of a nobleman from Patani, Datuk Maharaja Lela; he was chosen as chief of the Makassar Malays.⁽⁸⁾
In 1625, an English merchant, Henry Short recorded that ''𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒔𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒋𝒖𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒄𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒊, 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓 𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔''.⁽⁹⁾ The Malays were also prominent in the life of the court. Ince Amin, a Makassar Malay, was secretary to the ruler of Goa, and wrote a rhymed chronicle of the war between Goa and the VOC. This 𝑆𝑦𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑘𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑟 gives many examples of the diplomatic and military activities of the Makassar Malays, and confirms VOC accounts of their mediating role.⁽¹⁰⁾ The Dutch Governor-General Hendrik Brouwer in 1634, noted the migration of Malay and Javanese traders to Makassar. The Malays came from Johor, Pahang, and Lingga, while the Javanese came from Gresik, Giri, Jaratan, Sedayu and many other places.⁽⁹⁾ Malay trading communities can also be found in Java, particularly in Banten and Batavia. Willem Lodewycksz, the author of the account of the first Dutch voyage to the East Indies under Cornelis de Houtman in 1595-1597, mentioned the Malays and the Indians (klings) of Banten as traders who loaned money on interest for voyages and bottomry.⁽¹¹⁾
In both Batavia (from 1644) and Makassar (1670), the leaders of the Malay maritime community were large traders from Patani, thus the second generation of those who participated after the initial dispersal from Melaka. These were highly valued merchants and intermediaries. The first 𝐊𝐚𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐌𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐮 𝐨𝐟 𝐁𝐚𝐭𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐚, Encik Amat, was sent as a Dutch envoy to Mataram four times, and often arranged the protocol for the reception of Asian dignitaries in Batavia. When the fourth generation of this distinguished family to the Kapitan Melayu was caught swindling his fellow Malays in 1732, and exiled to Ceylon, he was found to have 329,000 𝑟𝑖𝑥𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 in property and hundreds of slaves. He must have been one of the richest men in not only Batavia but all Southeast Asia.⁽¹²⁾ The Malay community of Batavia was wealthy but not particularly large-between 2,000 and 4,000 in the period 1680-1730, dropping to below 2,000 in the mid-1700s (mainly due to malaria) but rising sharply to 12,000 at th end of the 18th century. By them, the category had expanded in meaning to embrace all the Malay-speaking Muslims who came to Batavia from Sumatra, Borneo and the Peninsula. This group of traders expanded as trade itself expanded in the 18th century.⁽¹²⁾
The centuries of inter-ethnic contact in cultural and commercial interactions, many of it underwritten by Malay as an important lingua franca, had spawned creole or Low Malay varieties as it scattered in port cities across the archipelago, with most notable examples are the Betawi (Batavia) Malay and Makassar Malay, and other Malay tongues which spun off from each other and refashioned in local particulars.⁽¹³⁾ Among these include, other seven varieties which become the native languages of their communities in the eastern part of the Malay Archipelago; Manado Malay (North Sulawesi), North Moluccan Malay (North Moluccas), Ambon Malay and Banda Malay (Central Moluccas), Kupang Malay (Timor), Larantuka Malay (Flores) and Papua Malay (Indonesian New Guinea).
From approximately 1880 until 1925, Low Malay was the most prominent language of newspapers and popular literature on Java that reached a wide, ethnically diverse audience of Chinese, Dutch, Eurasian, and indigenous populations.⁽¹⁴⁾ The Dutch East Indies colonial government insisted on the use of Low Malay and in general refused to allow Indonesians to learn Dutch, as a means of enforcing caste separation, but their efforts boomeranged when the Low Malay came to be a vehicle for Indonesian nationalism, serving as the basis for a new national language, which has been re-baptised Bahasa Indonesia in 1928 and is now the official language of the Indonesian Republic.⁽¹⁾⁽¹⁵⁾
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬
⁽¹⁾ Hall (1966), p. 13 ⁽²⁾ Steinhauer, H. (1980), p. 357-358 ⁽³⁾ Adelaar, K. A. (2000), p. 233 ⁽⁴⁾ Za'ba (1956) ⁽⁵⁾ Leow (2018), p. 208 ⁽⁶⁾ Alatas, S. H. (2012), p. 187 ⁽⁷⁾ John Villiers (1990), p. 124-125 ⁽⁸⁾ Barnard (2004), p. 79-80 ⁽⁹⁾ Alatas, S. H. (2012), p. 189 ⁽¹⁰⁾ Barnard (2004), p. 79-80 ⁽¹¹⁾ Lodewijcksz (1915), p. 121 ⁽¹²⁾ Barnard (2004), p. 8 ⁽¹³⁾ Leow (2018), p. 4-5 ⁽¹⁴⁾ Rafferty, E. (1984), p. 256 ⁽¹⁵⁾ Hall (1966), p. 18
𝐁𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐡𝐲
Adelaar, K. A. (2000). Malay: A Short History. Oriente Moderno, 19 (80)(2), 225–242. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25817713
Alatas, S. H. (2012). The Myth of the Lazy Native: A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos and Javanese from the 16th to the 20th Century and Its Function in the Ideology of Colonial Capitalism. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
Barnard, Timothy P. (2004), Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries, Singapore: Singapore University press, ISBN 9971-69-279-1
Hall, Robert Anderson (1966) - Pidgin and Creole Languages, ISBN:9780801401732
John Villiers, 'Makassar: the Rise and Fall of an East Indonesian Maritime Trading State, 1512-1669', in J. Kathirithamby-Wells & John Villiers eds., The Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and Demise, Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1990, 146, 157; Christian Pelras, The Bugis, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996, 124-5.
Leow, Rachel (2018), Taming Babel: Language in the Making of Malaysia, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1316602607
Lodewijcksz, Willem, 16th century D'Eerste Boeck & Rouffaer, G. P. (Gerret Pieter), 1860-1928 & Ijzerman, J. W. (Jan Willem), 1851-1932. (1915). De eerste schipvaart der Nederlanders naar Oost-Indie onder Cornelis de Houtman, 1595-1597 : journalen, documenten en andere bescheiden / uitgegeven en toegelicht door G.P. Rouffaer en J.W. Ijzerman. 's-Gravenhage : Martinus Nijhoff
Godinho de Eredia, Manuel, 1563-1623 & Mills. J. V. (1997). Eredia's description of Malaca, Meridional India, and Cathay / translated from the Portuguese with notes by J.V. Mills ; and new introduction by Cheah Boon Kheng. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia : Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
Rafferty, E. (1984). Languages of the Chinese of Java--An Historical Review. The Journal of Asian Studies, 43(2), 247–272. https://doi.org/10.2307/2055313
Steinhauer, H. (1980). On the History of Indonesian. Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics, 1, 349–375. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40996873
Za'ba (1956) - Soal Jawab Bahasa, Dewan Bahasa, June 1956; monthly columns run 1956-8
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